Dinoflagellates are the single celled protists that show a great amount of diversity in their form. The largest of them, Noctiluca, has a 2mm diameter. These creates are definitely not large than the human standards but they do have a big impact on their surrounding environments. Most of them are photosynthetic in nature that is they prepare their own food with the help of sun light and eventually providing a food source for the other organisms. Through bioluminescence, some of the species have the ability to produce their own light. There are some dinoflagellates which can be found as parasites on fish and on other protists.
The most striking effect of the dinoflagellates on the life in their region can be seen from the marine species especially during the hot summers. They reproduction of these species is very fast due to which the water appears red or golden, and produces a “red tide”. This put many other type of marine life in grave danger and they suffer from the dinoflagellates as they produce neurotoxin, which is the major cause of danger to the marine life. Human begins also get affected indirectly by eating fish which contains the toxins. “Ciguatera” and “paralytic shellfish poisoning” are the common disease by which human being suffer after eating this fish.
Oomycetes are popularly known as Water molds, they are the single celled and filamentous Heterokonts which physically look like fungi. They reproduce both by sexual and as well as asexual methods. They are microscopic in nature and they are absorptive organisms as well. They have a tube like vegetative body and they are composed of mycelia (also known as thallus).
The name water mold was derived because they were classified amongst the fungi which were found in early days. Their cell walls are composed of cellulose and usually they don’t have any separations. They also have diploid nuclei in the vegetative where on the other hand the fungi have haploid nuclei.
Water molds are related to the organisms like the diatoms and the brown algae, which make their separate group known as Heterokonts. The name is derived due to the common arrangement of structure of the motile cells which usually comprises of two unequal flagella. They Oomycetes are very significantly and scientifically important as they are one of the aggressive pathogens of plants.
Mitochondrial DNA testing is classified under the genetic testing method. It helps to find out more information about the mother’s side family as the Mitochondrial DNA is passed from mother to her child. This article will help you to get an idea of how mitochondrial testing is done.
Mitochondrial DNA is a type of DNA which can be found in the Mitochondria of the cells. Mitochondrial is quite different from the nuclear DNA. The mitochondrial DNA is inherited from the mother only while the nuclear DNA is inherited from both mother and father. When the sperm from the father and egg from the mother join together to form a baby, the tail of the sperm which contains the father’s mitochondrial DNA is left behind due to which only the mitochondrial of the mother is passed to their child.
The mitochondrial DNA testing is done in like nuclear testing. Collection of samples either blood sample or cheek swab is used for testing. Cheek swap is more preferred for the mitochondrial DNA testing rather than the blood sample. These samples are tested and analyzed in the laboratories with the help of some special instruments and the results are obtained.
Mitochondrial DNA testing is done for number of reasons – to understand and establish a direct family link between the mother’s side relatives. It is also used to trace the ancestry of the mother. Many cases of finding the unknown parents of the child are solved using the mitochondrial DNA testing.
Mitochondrial DNA testing is one of the ever growing fields in microbial science and is very useful to mankind in present and future.
Chromosome is long DNA molecule which is related with the proteins. It carries the hereditary information of the organism.
Structure of Chromosomes (metaphase)
A chromosome contains number of genes and is formed form single molecule of DNA. It contains 3 nucleotide sequences which play a vital role in replication process. The three nucleotide sequences of Chromosomes are replication origin, telomere and centromere.
Stained chromosome
These chromosomes are strained with G-C (R bands) and the A-T (G brand). The dyes are specified by the base pairs. When the chromosomes get strained, the mitotic chromosomes have a special type of structure which is unbanded in nature, due to which it identifies the chromosome of the karyotype. Millions of DNA nucleotide pairs can be found in each band which does not correspond with any type of functional structure.
Orthomyxoviruses are the influenza viruses which belong to the Orthomyxoviradae family. This virus is further classified in 3 types A,B and C and it is composed of one genus. Influenza, a acute respiratory disease which is caused due to theOrthomyxoviruses. The types A and B are responsible for regional epidemics during the winter season, the A type is also responsible for periodic worldwide epidemics.
Theinfluenza viruses is found very often and recurring as it has a special ability to exhibit variation in the surface antigens. There are 2 phenomenon which is responsible for variations:
Antigenic drift- It is caused due to the mutations in the RNA which eventually leads to changes in antigen character of N and H molecules. The changes in the antigen drift involves subtle changes that may cause the epidemics. However it does not involve pandemics.
Antigen shift- It is caused due to the rearrangement of various segments of viral genome which in turn is responsible production of the major changes in the character of antigen of N and H molecules.
Since 1173 AD, the influenza epidemics have been documented. Over 20 million deaths world wide in the year 1918 took place due to pandemic.
Micro RNA is frequently referred as miRNA. There are number of kits available in the market today which are used for the detection of the miRNA. The kits available now a day are able to detect miRNA as less as 50 ng or even less of the total RNA. The kits available for detection come in various detection ranges and are measured in femtomoles. Also with some kits there is no need to measure the mature miRNA with the amplification step. With some of the kits variety of RNA’s can be detected easily.
Splinted-ligation technology is the latest found in the Micro RNA labeling kit. With the advanced technology number of kits which helps to detect the microarray based identification of the miRNA targets have come up. Also some of the kits provide interfaces for hybridizing the mature miRNA’s. Some of them contain 3-Cytidine bisphosphate reagents which play vital role to mature the miRNA. The use of the modern sciences and advanced technology has made it very easily for the rapid detection of the amount of subfemtomole present in the miRNA species.
The detection of all the samples including those of plants is also possible with some of the kits. Some kits make use of additional reagents and buffers for the labeling reactions that take place.
Antisense is one of the stand of DNA, so the DNA having the antisense strand is called antisense DNA. Normally DNA composes of double strands which are sense strand and antisense strand. Only one of the strand codes the RNA which is further translated into the protein. The strand which does not take part in RNA coding process is known as the sense strand.
The vital function of the antisense DNA strand is to carry the information which is necessary for making the proteins. The proteins are made by binding the corresponding strand of the mRNA. Even though both of the stands are mirror image of each other, still only antisense strand is the one which contains the information for the protein process.
Short segments of the DNA or the RNA with around twenty bases are known as oligonucleotide (also known as oligo).Now a days they are synthesize with the help of polymerizing nucleotide precursors. With the help of the synthesizers, the synthesis takes place up to 140 to 200 bases.
"Mer" is the word which is used to denote the length of the oligonucleotide, like if we have 100 bases then the length of the oligonucleotide is called 100-Mer. oligonucleotide is used as probes for the detection of the DNA or the RNA as they posses the capability of readily binding to the complementary nucleotide.
oligonucleotide are also used in the PCR (polymerase chain reaction) which is used for the amplification of small pieces of the DNA.
Microbial ID is used for the identification of the microbial services. Over 2500 specimens can be identified with the Microbial ID. It also offers polyphasic analysis for fatty acids and DNA. It generates the results of both DNA and fatty acids in a single report which helps for better clarification of the ID's. Microbial ID plays a vital role in determining the most critical samples.
RNA interference (RNAi) is one of the best effective for knocking down of the gene expression which will help for studying the function of protein in varieties of cells. Use of the Synthetic RNA duplexes is one of the traditional method used for the analysis. Now-a-days number of methods are used world wide which involves the use of proprietary chemical modifications which yields better results in the analysis of the RNAi.
The non-vector approaches approaches offer better results than the vector based methods. Following are some of the advantages of the vector based analysis method.
synthetic duplexes of the experiments on RNAi are performed easily
the rate of transient knockdown increases rapidly
there is a considerable reduction in toxicity due to various enhanced modifications
the likelihood of the high knockdown levels is increased do to the improvement in the designs
DNA sequencing comprises of the biochemical method which helps to determine the bases of nucleotide, guanine, thymine, adenine, cytosine in the oligonnucleotide of DNA. The elements of DNA sequencing include the heritable genetic information in the mitochondria, plasmids, chloroplasts and nuclei which are the part of developmental programs in all of the living organisms. In the studying the fundamentals of the biological process is it very essential and useful in determine the DNA sequencing. The biological discovery and research are boosted after the advent of DNA sequencing. With the recent technological development DNA sequencing of many animals has also been generated successfully.
Some latest methods used for DNA sequencing are as follows
Number of DNA sequencing are coming up due to large amount of demand for sequencing through low cost. Many private and public organizations and companies are coming up and raising funds for DNA sequencing methods. Many methods are put into implementation these days which have accelerated the pace of sequencing.
Vtro clonal amplification- For the sequencing of the single molecule the methods for the molecular detection are not sufficient, so in number of cases the use of vitro is made for generation of multiple copies of the individual molecule. For the isolation of the individual DNA molecule along with the primer-coated beads Emulation PCR is used often. A chain reaction then coats the head with the help of the clonal copies of isolated library molecule, once this is done then immobilization of heads takes place and then they are sequenced.
Parallelized sequencing- When the DNA sequences get physically localized on the surface number of approaches can be adopted which can determine the DNA sequences of all the locations in parallel. By the use of DNA polymerase for the process of DNA synthesis for the identification of the bases can be done for the Sequencing by synthesis. There are number of other methods which can be implemented for DNA sequencing using parallel ways.
Short interfering RNA or silencing RNA is also popularly known as Small interfering RNA (siRNA). Small interfering RNA contains class of 20-25 nucleotides which are long and double stranded molecules of RNA. They play number of vital roles in biology. The RNA pathway involves siRNA where it interfaces with some specific gene. Apart from the pathway of RNA, the siRNA also plays a important role in the pathways related to RNA-i.
DNA microarray is a unique technology found in the fields of molecular biology and medicine. It consists of the features which are the arrayed series of thousands of DNA oligonucleotides microscopic spots, each such spot contain picomoles of specific DNA sequence. There can also be a short selection of any other DNA or a gene which is used as probes to hybridize a cRNA or cDNA sample under high stingency conditions. Fluorescence based method of fluorophore label targets to determine the relative abundance of nucleic acid sequence in target for detection is used for the detection and quantification of the Probe-target hybridization.
A covalent bond attracts the probes to the chemical matix in the standard type of microarrays. Colloquially Affy chip or the standard solid surface of glass or silicon surface also known as gene chip is used. Some of the microarray platforms like the illumina make use of the microscopic beads. DNA microarrays use DNA as part of its detection system.
SNPs (single nucleotide polymorephisms) or the changes in the expression levels are detected and measured by the DNA microarrays. Also there is considerable amount of difference in the accuracy,fabrication, cost and working system of the DNA Microarrays.
micro RNA (miRNA) form the important element in genetics. They are the single stranded RNA molecules which are only 21-23 nucleotides in length and regulate the gene expression. miRNA get coded by the genes which are transcribed from the DNA but they are not translated into the protein i.e the non-coding RNA; instead they get processes from the pri-miRNA (which are also known as the primary transcript) to the short stem loop structures which are the pre-miRNA and finally to the functional miRNA. The mature molecules of miRNA are partially complimentary to either one or more messenger RNA molecule and their main function is to down regulate the gene expression.
